Mothers, not just fathers, drove social mobility in early America

Social mobility in the US rose significantly from the 19th to the 20th century. This was driven by mothers' education and the expansion of public schooling.

For a long time, researchers focused on fathers' income to understand how children moved up in society. This paper shows that mothers' education was a key factor, especially in earlier times. It also highlights how public education helped more people climb the ladder, reducing the reliance on a mother's existing knowledge.